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Consciousness - Wikipedia
Consciousnessat its simplest, is sentience or awareness apa style case study multiple sclerosis internal and external existence. Sometimes, it is synonymous with the mindand at other times, an aspect of it. In the past, it was one's "inner life", the world of introspectionof private thoughtimagination and volition. It may be awarenessawareness of awarenessapa style case study multiple sclerosis, or self-awareness.
The disparate range of research, notions and speculations raises doubts about whether the right questions are being asked. Examples of the range of descriptions, definitions or explanations are: simple wakefulnessone's sense of selfhood or soul explored by " looking within "; being a metaphorical " stream " of contents, or being a mental statemental event or mental process of the brain; having phanera or qualia and subjectivity ; being the ' something that it is like ' to 'have' or 'be' it; being the "inner theatre" or the executive control system of the mind.
Western philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and how it fits into a larger picture of the world. These issues remain central to both continental and analytic philosophy, in phenomenology and the philosophy of mindrespectively. Some basic questions include: whether consciousness is the same kind of thing as matter; whether it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to be conscious; how consciousness relates to language ; how consciousness as Being relates to the world of experience; the role of the self in experience; whether individual thought is possible at all; and whether the concept is fundamentally coherent.
Recently, consciousness has also become a significant topic of interdisciplinary research in cognitive scienceinvolving fields such as psychologylinguisticsanthropology, [11] neuropsychology and neuroscience. The primary focus is on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in consciousness—that is, apa style case study multiple sclerosis, on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness.
The majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences e, apa style case study multiple sclerosis. Issues of interest include phenomena such as subliminal perceptionblindsightdenial of impairmentand altered states of consciousness produced by alcohol and other drugs apa style case study multiple sclerosis, or spiritual or meditative techniques.
In medicineconsciousness is assessed by observing a patient's arousal and responsiveness, and can be apa style case study multiple sclerosis as a continuum of states ranging from full alertness and comprehension, through disorientation, deliriumloss of meaningful communication, apa style case study multiple sclerosis, and finally loss of movement in response to painful stimuli.
In the late 20th century, philosophers like HamlynRortyand Wilkes have disagreed with KahnHardie and Modrak as to whether Aristotle even had a concept of consciousness.
Aristotle does not use any single word or terminology to name the phenomena ; it is used only much later, especially by John Locke. Caston contends that for Aristotle, perceptual awareness was somewhat the same as what modern philosophers call consciousness.
The origin of the modern concept of consciousness is often attributed to Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understandingpublished in The earliest English language uses of "conscious" and "consciousness" date back, however, to the s. The English word "conscious" originally derived from the Latin conscius con- "together" and scio "to know"but the Latin word did not have the same meaning as the English word—it meant "knowing with", in other words, "having joint or common knowledge with another".
This phrase had the figurative meaning of "knowing that one knows", as the modern English word "conscious" does. In its earliest uses in the s, the English word "conscious" retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote: "Where two, or more men, know of one and the same fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in of "being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness".
A related word was conscientiawhich primarily means moral conscience. In the literal sense, "conscientia" means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by writers such as Cicero. In Search after Truth Regulæ ad directionem ingenii ut et inquisitio veritatis per lumen naturaleAmsterdam he says "conscience apa style case study multiple sclerosis internal testimony" conscientiâ, vel interno testimonio.
The dictionary definitions of the word consciousness extend through several centuries and reflect a range of seemingly related meanings, with some differences that have been controversial, such as the distinction between 'inward awareness' and 'perception' of the physical world, or the distinction between 'conscious' and 'unconscious', or the notion of a "mental entity" or "mental activity" that is not physical.
The common usage definitions of consciousness in Webster's Third New International Dictionary edition, Volume 1, page are as follows:. The Cambridge Dictionary defines consciousness as " the state of understanding and realizing something. Philosophers have attempted to clarify technical distinctions by using a jargon of their own.
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy in defines consciousness as follows:. Consciousness —Philosophers have used the term 'consciousness' for four main topics: knowledge in general, intentionality, introspection and the knowledge it specifically generates and phenomenal experience Something within one's mind is 'introspectively conscious' just in case apa style case study multiple sclerosis introspects it or is poised to do so. Introspection is often thought to deliver one's primary knowledge of one's mental life.
An experience or other mental entity is 'phenomenally conscious' just in case there is 'something it is like' for one to have it. The clearest examples are: perceptual experience, such as tastings and seeings; bodily-sensational experiences, such as those of pains, tickles and itches; imaginative experiences, such as those of one's own actions or perceptions; and streams of thought, as in the experience of thinking 'in words' or 'in images'.
Introspection and phenomenality seem independent, or dissociable, although this is controversial. Many philosophers and scientists have been unhappy about the difficulty of producing a definition that does not involve circularity or fuzziness. Consciousness —The having of perceptions, apa style case study multiple sclerosis, thoughts, and feelings; awareness.
The term is impossible to define except in terms that are unintelligible without a grasp of what consciousness means. Many fall into the trap of equating consciousness with self-consciousness —to be conscious it is only necessary to be aware of the external world, apa style case study multiple sclerosis.
Consciousness is a fascinating but elusive phenomenon: it is impossible to specify what it is, what it does, or why it has evolved. Nothing worth reading has been written on it. Al Byrd, the author of Superhuman Creators, defines consciousness, for animals, humans and artificial agents, as the effect of integrating and filtering many different types of affordance awareness; that is, awareness of the action possibilities in an environment.
According to this definition, all agents that can perceive and act on affordances are conscious to some extent. A partisan definition such as Sutherland's can hugely affect researchers' assumptions and the direction of their work:.
If awareness of the environment. is the criterion of consciousness, then even the protozoans are conscious. If awareness of awareness is required, then it is doubtful whether the great apes and human infants are conscious.
Most writers on the philosophy of consciousness have been concerned with defending a particular point of view, and have organized their material accordingly. For surveys, the most common approach is to follow a historical path by associating stances with the philosophers who are most strongly associated with them, for example, Descartes, Locke, Kant, etc.
An alternative is to organize philosophical stances according to basic issues. Many philosophers have argued that consciousness is a unitary concept that is understood intuitively by the majority of people in spite of the difficulty in defining it. Philosophers differ from non-philosophers in their intuitions about what consciousness is. Gilbert Rylefor example, argued that traditional understanding of consciousness depends on a Cartesian dualist outlook that improperly distinguishes between mind and body, or between mind and world.
He proposed that we speak not of minds, bodies, and the world, but of individuals, or persons, acting in the world. Thus, by speaking of "consciousness" we end up misleading ourselves by thinking that there is any sort of thing as consciousness separated from behavioral and linguistic understandings.
Ned Block argued that discussions on consciousness often failed to properly distinguish phenomenal P-consciousness from access A-consciousnessthough these terms had been used before Block.
These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called qualia. A-consciousness, on the other hand, is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior. Apa style case study multiple sclerosis, when we perceiveinformation about what we perceive is access conscious; when we introspectinformation about our thoughts is access conscious; when we rememberinformation about the past is access conscious, and so on.
Although some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennetthave disputed the validity of this distinction, [36] others have broadly accepted it. David Chalmers has argued that A-consciousness can in principle be understood in mechanistic terms, but that understanding P-consciousness is much more challenging: he calls this the hard problem of consciousness.
Some philosophers believe that Block's two types of consciousness are not the end of the story. There is also debate over whether or not A-consciousness and P-consciousness always coexist or if they can exist separately. Although Apa style case study multiple sclerosis without A-consciousness is more widely accepted, there have been some hypothetical examples of A without P.
Block, for instance, suggests the case of a "zombie" that is computationally identical to a person but without any subjectivity. However, he remains somewhat skeptical concluding "I don't know whether there are any actual cases of A-consciousness without P-consciousness, but I hope I have illustrated their conceptual possibility. Mental processes such as consciousness and physical processes such as brain events seem to be correlated, however the specific nature of the connection is unknown.
The first influential philosopher to discuss this question specifically was Descartesand the answer he gave is known as Cartesian dualism. Descartes proposed that consciousness resides within an immaterial domain he called res cogitans the realm of thoughtin contrast to the domain of material things, which he called res extensa the realm of extension.
Although it is widely accepted that Descartes explained the problem cogently, few later philosophers have been happy with his solution, and his ideas about the pineal gland have especially been ridiculed. Proposed solutions can be divided broadly into two categories: dualist solutions that maintain Descartes' rigid distinction between the realm of consciousness and the realm of matter apa style case study multiple sclerosis give different answers for how the two realms relate to each other; and monist solutions that maintain that there is really only one realm of being, of which consciousness and matter are both aspects.
Each of these categories itself contains numerous variants. The two main types of dualism are substance dualism which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics and property dualism which holds that the laws of physics are universally valid but cannot be used to explain the mind.
The three main types of monism are physicalism which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular wayidealism which holds that only thought or experience truly exists, and matter is merely an illusionand neutral monism which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them. There are also, however, a large number of idiosyncratic theories that cannot cleanly be assigned to any of these schools of thought.
Since the dawn of Newtonian science with its vision of simple mechanical principles governing the apa style case study multiple sclerosis universe, some philosophers have been tempted by the idea that consciousness could be explained in purely physical terms. The first influential writer to propose such an idea explicitly was Julien Offray de La Mettriein his book Man a Machine L'homme machine. His arguments, however, were very abstract. Theories proposed by neuroscientists such as Gerald Edelman [46] and Antonio Damasio[47] and by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett[48] seek to explain consciousness in terms of neural events occurring within the brain, apa style case study multiple sclerosis.
Many other neuroscientists, such as Christof Koch[49] have explored the neural basis of consciousness without attempting to frame all-encompassing global theories.
At the same time, computer scientists working in the field of artificial intelligence have pursued the goal of creating digital computer programs that can simulate or embody consciousness. A few theoretical physicists have argued that classical physics is intrinsically incapable of explaining the holistic aspects of consciousness, but that quantum theory may provide the missing ingredients.
Several theorists have therefore proposed quantum mind QM theories of consciousness. Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness. None of the quantum mechanical theories have been confirmed by experiment.
Recent publications by G. Guerreshi, J. Cia, S. Popescu, and H, apa style case study multiple sclerosis. Briegel [52] could falsify proposals such as those of Hameroff, which rely on quantum entanglement in protein. At the present time apa style case study multiple sclerosis scientists and philosophers consider the arguments for an important role of quantum phenomena to be unconvincing.
Apart from the general question of the "hard problem" of consciousness which is, roughly speaking, the question of how mental experience can arise from a physical basis [54]a more specialized question is how to square the subjective notion that we are in control of our decisions at least in some small measure with the customary view of causality that subsequent events are caused by prior events.
The topic of free will is the philosophical and scientific examination of this conundrum. Many philosophers consider experience to be the essence of consciousness, and believe that experience can only fully be known from the inside, subjectively.
But if consciousness is subjective and not visible from the outside, why do the vast majority of people believe that other people are conscious, but rocks and apa style case study multiple sclerosis are not?
Case-Based Approach to the Treatment and Management of Multiple Sclerosis
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